Used nuclear fuel has long been reprocessed to extract fissile materials for recycling and to reduce the volume of high-level wastes. New reprocessing technologies are being developed to be deployed in conjunction with fast neutron reactors which will burn all long-lived actinides.
 

Synroc is basically a ceramic made from several natural minerals which together incorporate into their crystal structures nearly all of the elements present in high level radioactive waste. Recent developments are of specialised forms to immobilise plutonium, and of composite glass-ceramic wasteforms.

The nuclear fuel cycle is the series of industrial processes which involve the production of electricity from uranium in nuclear power reactors. Uranium is a relatively common element that is found throughout the world.

Mixed oxide (MOX) fuel provides about 2% of the new nuclear fuel used today. MOX fuel is manufactured from plutonium recovered from used reactor fuel. MOX fuel also provides a means of burning weapons-grade plutonium (from military sources) to produce electricity.

Reprocessing of Japanese used fuel has been undertaken in UK and France under contract with Japanese utilities. Recovered fissile materials are returned to Japan as reactor fuel, notably as mixed oxide (MOX) fuel. 

Nuclear waste is neither particularly hazardous nor hard to manage relative to other toxic industrial wastes. The amount of radioactive waste is very small relative to wastes produced by fossil fuel electricity generation. Safe methods for the final disposal of high-level radioactive waste are technically proven.

The International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation (IFNEC), developed from the former Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP), is a partnership of countries aiming to ensure that new nuclear in initiatives meet the highest standards of safety, security and non‐proliferation.

Molten salt reactor use molten fluoride salts as primary coolant, at low pressure. Much of the interest today in reviving the MSR concept relates to using thorium (to breed fissile uranium-233).

The USA is reviving its uranium mining, though almost all the uranium used in US commercial reactors is imported. A new centrifuge enrichment plant is now operating to replace very old and inefficient capacity. Implementation of national policy on high-level waste disposal remains blocked politically, but there are now two major proposals for long-term storage of it.

Fast neutron reactors offer the prospect of vastly more efficient use of uranium resources and the ability to burn actinides which are otherwise the long-lived component of high-level nuclear waste. Some 400 reactor-years' experience has been gained in operating them.

A major increase in uranium mine production is planned. There is increasing international involvement in parts of Russia's fuel cycle. Exports are a major Russian policy and economic objective.

Australia has a relatively small amount of low-level radioactive waste and rather less volume of intermediate-level waste (ILW). A national repository for both categories of the Commonwealth's wastes is planned.

China has become self-sufficient in most aspects of the fuel cycle. The country aims to produce one-third of its uranium domestically, obtain one-third through foreign equity in mines and joint ventures overseas, and to purchase one-third on the open market.

Treatment and conditioning processes are used to convert radioactive waste materials into a form that is suitable for its subsequent management.

Tajikistan is mineral-rich and has some uranium deposits. It has substantial issues with legacy waste from past uranium mining and milling as a regional centre.

Most countries participate in international initiatives designed to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons. The international safeguards system has since 1970 successfully prevented the diversion of fissile materials into weapons.

British scientists were preeminent in the development of nuclear energy through to the early 1940s and a domestic nuclear industry grew to provide up to one third of electricity before starting to gradually retire. Now the country is working to build a new wave of power plants.

The government is heavily involved through safety and environmental regulations, R&D funding, and setting national energy goals. The commitment to nuclear power as part of the USA's long-term energy strategy continues with the Trump administration.

On 30 September 1999 three workers received high doses of radiation in a Japanese plant preparing fuel for an experimental reactor. Two of the doses proved fatal. The accident was caused by bringing together too much uranium enriched to a relatively high level, causing a 'criticality'.

A compendium of radioactive waste management policies in different countries, and how they are funded.

Thorium is more abundant in nature than uranium. It is fertile rather than fissile, and can be used in conjunction with fissile material as nuclear fuel. The use of thorium as a new primary energy source has been a tantalizing prospect for many years.

South Korea is among the world's most prominent nuclear energy countries, and exports its technology widely. Today 26 reactors provide about one-third of South Korea's electricity from 26 GWe of plant.

Japan has a full nuclear fuel cycle set-up, including enrichment and reprocessing of used fuel for recycle. Nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973.

There is every reason to expect that the world supply of uranium, as of other metals, is sustainable, with adequate known resources being continuously replenished at least as fast as they are being used and at costs affordable to consumers.

Italy had four operating nuclear power reactors but shut the last two down following the Chernobyl accident. About 5% of the electricity consumed in Italy is from nuclear power – all imported.

India has a largely indigenous nuclear power programme and has ambitious plans to expand nuclear capacity. The country has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle.

Australia's uranium has been mined since 1954, and three mines are currently operating. Australia's known uranium resources are the world's largest – 29% of the world total. It is the world's third-ranking producer, behind Kazakhstan and Canada.

Over one-third of the energy produced in most nuclear power plants comes from plutonium. It is created there as a by-product. Plutonium has occurred naturally, but except for trace quantities it is not now found in the Earth's crust.

An international task force is developing six nuclear reactor technologies for deployment between 2020 and 2030. Four are fast neutron reactors. All six systems represent advances in sustainability, economics, safety, reliability and proliferation-resistance.

Uranium is a relatively common metal, found in rocks and seawater. Economic concentrations of it are not uncommon.

In the last 60 years uranium has become one of the world's most important energy minerals. It is used almost entirely for making electricity, though a small proportion is used for the important task of producing medical isotopes.

Weapons-grade uranium and plutonium is being made available for use as civil fuel. Highly-enriched uranium from weapons stockpiles met about 13% of world reactor requirements through to 2013.

Fuel fabrication is the final stage in nuclear fuel preparation prior to use in a reactor. Nuclear fuel assemblies are specifically designed for particular types of reactors and are made to exacting standards.

The UAE has commenced a nuclear power programme. It accepted a bid from a South Korean consortium to build four commercial nuclear power reactors at Barakah, the first of which was connected to the grid in August 2020.

Used nuclear fuel is responsibly managed to protect people and the environment, using well-established and proven industrial methods and technologies.

The World Nuclear Association has developed an internationally standardized reporting tool to understand the sustainable development performance of uranium mining and processing sites.

Many of the world's nuclear reactors are used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. There are about 220 such reactors operating, in 53 countries.

The basic fuel for a nuclear power reactor is uranium. Uranium occurs naturally in the Earth's crust and is mildly radioactive. Depleted uranium is a by-product from uranium enrichment.

Taiwan shut down its last operating nuclear reactor in May 2025. It was constructing two advanced reactors, but this project was cancelled. Imports account for over 95% of the energy, and are vital to the rapidly industrializing economy.

Japanese Waste and MOX Shipments from Europe Appendix: From BNFL Media Brief 4 December 1996, "Shipments of Nuclear Materials Between Europe and Japan"

France derives about 70% of its electricity from nuclear energy. This is due to a long-standing policy based on energy security. France is the world's largest net exporter of electricity due to its very low cost of nuclear generation.

Ukraine is heavily dependent on nuclear energy – it has 15 reactors generating about half of its electricity.

Belgium has three operable nuclear reactors. Belgium's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1974. A 2003 federal law requiring the phase-out of nuclear energy was repealed in May 2025.

Germany until March 2011 obtained one-quarter of its electricity from nuclear energy, using 17 reactors. Following the Fukushima accident in Japan in March 2011, eight reactors shut down immediately with the remaining reactors phased out by April 2023.

Radioactive material accounts for a very small proportion of all dangerous material shipped each year. About 20 million consignments of radioactive material are transported each year on public roads, railways, and ships. 

Spain generates about a fifth of its electricity from nuclear power. Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1968. There are plans for renewed uranium mining. Government commitment to nuclear energy has been uncertain.

The Czech Republic has six nuclear reactors generating about one-third of its electricity. Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1985. Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy is strong.

Radiotherapy can be used to treat some medical conditions, especially cancer. Tens of millions of nuclear medicine procedures are performed each year, and demand for radioisotopes is increasing rapidly.

Improved designs of nuclear power reactors are currently being developed in several countries. Newer advanced reactors now being built have simpler designs which reduce capital cost. They are more fuel efficient and are inherently safer.

Nuclear Proliferation Case Studies: Iran, North Korea & Iraq - Implications for Safeguards; also South Africa, Israel, Syria and Libya.

Pakistan has six operating reactors. Because Pakistan is outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty due to its weapons programme, it is largely excluded from trade in nuclear plant or materials, which hinders its development of civil nuclear energy.

Australian Research Reactors, Australia has a new state of the art research reactor – OPAL, which commenced operation in 2006. Australia was one of the first countries to build a civil research reactor, in 1958. HIFAR produced most of Australia’s radioisotopes for medicine and industry from 1958 to 2007.

Production from world uranium mines has in recent years supplied 90% of the requirements of power utilities. Primary production from mines is supplemented by secondary supplies, principally by ex-military material.

Indonesia's population of about 260 million is served by power generation capacity of only about 95 GWe. Indonesia has a greater depth of experience and infrastructure in nuclear technology than any other country in southeast Asia.

A list of terms commonly used in discussion of the nuclear energy industry.

The Netherlands has one nuclear reactor generating a small amount of its electricity. A previous decision to phase out nuclear power has been reversed. Public and political support is increasing for expanding nuclear energy.

There have been several proposal for regional and international repositories for disposal of high-level nuclear wastes and several projects are being investigated.

There are three operating uranium mines in Australia: Ranger in Northern Territory, Olympic Dam in South Australia, and Beverley with Four Mile in South Australia. Four Mile has final processing through the Beverley plant.

Asia is the main region in the world where electricity generating capacity and specifically nuclear power is growing significantly. The greatest growth in nuclear generation is expected in China.

This document sets out principles for the management of radiation, health and safety, waste and the environment applicable to sites throughout the world.

Reactor operators have taken steps to protect their workforce and have implemented business continuity plans to ensure the continuing functioning of key aspects of their businesses. Nuclear technologies are also being used to detect and fight the Covid-19 coronavirus.

Hungary has four nuclear reactors generating about half of its electricity. Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1982. Government support for nuclear energy is strong.

Switzerland has four operational nuclear reactors. Two large new units were planned. However, in June 2011 parliament resolved not to replace any reactors, and hence to phase out nuclear power by 2034.

Following many years of construction, Iran's first nuclear power reactor started up in 2011. Two further large Russian-designed units are planned, the first of which commenced construction in November 2019. The country also has a major programme developing uranium enrichment, and this was concealed for many years.

Nuclear plants allow people to improve their quality of life while using resources responsibly.

Mineral Sands Appendix to NORM Information Paper ( March 2008 ) Australia and Africa are major producers of mineral sands containing titanium minerals and zircon.   A by-product of this is monazite containing thorium, which is radioactive. Monazite is a minor constituent of many mineral sands deposits

World Nuclear Fuel Cycle 2026

Green technologies are being deployed with the aim of making modern societies more sustainable. It is therefore essential to consider the mineral resource and physical mining realities associated with the energy transition.

South Africa has two nuclear reactors generating 5% of its electricity. South Africa's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1984. Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy has been strong, but financial constraints are severe.

Uzbekistan has considerable mineral deposits, including uranium. Today, most uranium is mined in the middle of the country, with Navoi as the centre, linked to mines by railway. 

Construction of two small and two large Russian reactors is planned.

In this report, the World Nuclear Association maps the strategic export control landscape and identifies examples of good practice by suppliers and export control authorities. 

The science of atomic radiation, atomic change and nuclear fission was developed from 1895 to 1945. From 1945 attention was given to harnessing this energy in a controlled fashion for naval propulsion and for making electricity.

Kyrgyzstan has some uranium deposits and has supplied Russia in the past. A ban on uranium mining and exploration introduced in 2019 was lifted in 2024.

Decommissioning costs for nuclear power plants, including disposal of associated wastes, contribute only a small fraction of the total cost of electricity generation. Proven techniques and equipment are available to dismantle nuclear facilities.

A large amount of uranium is in rare earths deposits, and may be extracted as a by-product. Higher uranium prices and geopolitical developments would enhance the economic potential for recovering these.

Japan needs to import some 90% of its energy requirements. Nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973. Following the 2011 Fukushima accident this policy was reviewed and reaffirmed.

Submission from the World Nuclear Association to the South Australian Nuclear Fuel Cycle Royal Commission consultation on management, storage, disposal of nuclear and radioactive waste (July 2015)

This information paper describes in detail the causes of the nuclear accident at Fukushima Daiichi in March 2011 and the actions taken since.

The regulator's decision resumes most of the plant's radioactive waste management licences, which were suspended in May

US Uranium Mining and Exploration. Uranium mining in the USA today is undertaken by few companies on a relatively small scale. Uranium exploration is undertaken by many companies, often going over areas that were mined in the 1950-80s.

In most respects the environmental aspects of a uranium mine are the same as those of other metalliferous mining. Most uranium mines in Australia and Canada have ISO 14001 certification. The uranium itself has a very low level of radioactivity, comparable with granite.

Radioactive materials which occur naturally and where human activities increase the exposure of people to ionising radiation are known by the acronym 'NORM'. NORM results from activities such as burning coal, making and using fertilisers, oil and gas production.

Powerful accelerators may be linked to conventional nuclear reactor technology in an accelerator-driven system (ADS) to transmute long-lived radioisotopes in used nuclear fuel into shorter-lived fission products.

Most of the current fleet of reactors in the UK is due to retire by 2030. Construction has commenced on the first of a new generation of plants.

Bulgaria has two nuclear reactors generating about one-third of its electricity. Bulgaria's first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1974. Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy is strong.

Most uranium mining in the USA and Kazakhstan is now by in situ leach methods.  In the USA, ISL is seen as the most cost effective and environmentally acceptable method of mining, and Australian experience supports this.

The nuclear power industry has various arrangements for cooperation among utilities, and internationally, among government and United Nations nuclear agencies. The World Association of Nuclear Operators is a valuable means of international assistance.

The continent of Africa has considerable mineral deposits, including uranium. Exploration and mine development is proceeding in countries which have not hitherto supplied uranium.

There has been more than 40 years of experience in applying international radiation safety regulations at uranium mines. Uranium mining companies have taken steps to reduce radiation doses wherever and whenever they can.

The 1970 energy crises led to a major expansion of nuclear capacity as countries sought to diversify their sources of energy supply and reduce dependence on the continual import of large volumes of fossil fuels. For many countries, the appraisal of recent events and, in particular, surging fossil fuel prices, has led to similar decisions that that may result in a greater role for nuclear energy.

This report proposes recommendations for industrial practices in non-linear analysis of safety grade reactor components.

Trade in nuclear fuel materials and services takes place between producers and consumers spread across a range of countries worldwide. To carry out such trade efficiently often requires that quantities of nuclear materials are exchanged, or ‘swapped’. 

Niger has two significant uranium mines providing about 5% of world mining output from Africa's highest-grade uranium ores. Niger's first commercial uranium mine began operating in 1971.

Canada was the world's largest uranium producer for many years, accounting for about 22% of world output, but in 2009 was overtaken by Kazakhstan. Canada will have a significant role in meeting future world demand for uranium.

Kazakhstan has 14% of the world's uranium resources. It is the world's leading uranium producer. The government is committed to increased uranium exports, and is considering future options for nuclear power.

Sweden's nuclear power reactors provide about 30% of its electricity. In November 2023 the government announced plans to construct two large-scale reactors by 2035 and the equivalent of 10 new reactors, including small modular reactors, by 2045.

Electricity demand is growing. The key question is how electricity should be produced now and in the years to come. Nuclear is currently the world's second largest source of low-carbon power, is quickly scalable, and provides numerous benefits to people and the planet.