| Country: |
AUSTRALIA |
| Nuclear Power |
There are no nuclear power reactors in Australia. Australia has one research reactor (High Flux Australian Reactor - HIFAR), which will be replaced by the replacement research reactor (RRR) in the next 2 years. |
| Responsible agencies |
Implementer: Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) - which operates the research reactor - www.ansto.gov.au;
Regulator for Federal facilities: Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) - www.arpansa.gov.au;
Agency with responsibility for radioactive waste management: Federal Department of Education, Science and Training - www.dest.gov.au/radwaste. |
| Backend strategy |
Australia's spent fuel management strategy is to reprocess spent fuel from its research reactor, with the exception of US origin fuel, which is returned to the US. The waste arising from the reprocessing of the non-US spent fuel will be returned to Australia for storage and, ultimately, disposal. |
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| Disposal Concepts and status |
| LLW |
A search for a site for a near-surface national repository commenced in 1992, and resulted in the identification of a site for the facility near Woomera in South Australia in May 2003. A multi-barrier approach is proposed with disposal of waste in trenches and boreholes. Environmental approval for the facility has been obtained, and radiological licenses will now be applied for. The facility may be operating in 2004, subject to satisfactory completion of the licensing process. |
| ILW |
Australia is in the process of establishing a national above-ground storage facility for its small volume of long-lived intermediate level radioactive waste. Given its small volume of this type of waste, Australia intends to monitor developments overseas with respect to disposal facilities for ILW before committing to a program to site such a facility.In February 2001, the Federal Government announced that it would establish a safe, purpose-built above-ground storage facility on Federal Government land for the safe storage of intermediate level waste produced by Federal Government agencies, based on scientific and environmental criteria. The site selection process is currently underway, and it is expected that the Government will announce a short list of possible sites for further investigation during the second half of 2003. |
| HLW/Spent Fuel |
Australia's spent fuel from its research reactor will be reprocessed overseas, and the waste will be returned to Australia for storage in the national store. |
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| Waste management facilities |
| Storage |
ANSTO's Lucas Heights facility, near Sydney, has storage facilities on site for its operational waste and for spent fuel.The Queensland State Government has a purpose-built, above-ground store at Esk, near Brisbane, for low-level and short and long lived intermediate level radioactive waste. The facility holds waste generated in Queensland. |
| Disposal |
The Western Australian (WA) Government operates a near-surface disposal facility for intractable waste generated in WA, including low level and short-lived intermediate level radioactive waste, Mount Walton East, which is located about 480 km northeast of Perth. |
| Research |
ANSTO (research into ceramic and glass-ceramic waste forms, materials processing and consolidation technologies, as well as waste form characterization and durability assessment) www.ansto.gov.au. |
| Additional information |
NA |
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| Country: |
BELGIUM
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Nuclear Power
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7 PWR units; 5.7 GWe total; 58% of electricity (2001)
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Responsible agencies
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Implementer; National Agency for Radioactive Waste Management, ONDRAF; Federal Agency for Nuclear Control, FANC
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Backend strategy
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Direct disposal adopted following cessation of new reprocessing contracts by the Government in 1994.
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| Disposal status |
LLW
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Near-surface and deep geological repository concepts considered; sites considered at existing nuclear facilities (Doel, Fleurus, Mol-Dessel and Tihange); partnerships with local authorities at Mol, Dessel and Fleurus-Farciennes to study the societal acceptability.
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ILW
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See HLW/Spent Fuel
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HLW / Spent Fuel
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Deep geological disposal design; Clay and shale layers under investigation at Mol.
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| Waste management facilities |
Storage
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LLW/ILW storage at Belgoprocess, Dessel
Spent fuel stored on site at the NPPs.
High-level vitrified waste stored at Belgoprocess, Dessel (See Belgoprocess website).
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Disposal
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No operating facilities; no site finally identified.
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Research
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Demonstration repository at Mol using Boom Clay for HLW disposal (National Nuclear Research Cenre, SCK-CEN ).
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Additional information
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| Country: |
FINLAND
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Nuclear Power
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4 reactors; 2.65 GWe total; 30% of electricity.
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Responsible agencies
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Implementer: Storage - Fortum; TVO; Disposal - Posiva
Regulator: Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority ( STUK )
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Backend strategy
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Direct disposal of spent fuel.
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| Disposal status |
LLW / ILW
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Near-surface disposal (shallow repositories);
1) Olkiluoto; Operational since 1992.
2) Loviisa; operational since 1998.
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HLW / Spent Fuel
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Deep geological disposal in bedrock; Olkiluoto.
6 sites considered 1987 - 1999.
Application for "Decision in Principle" and EIA submitted by Posiva to government in May 1999.
December 2000, the Government made a policy decision of the final disposal facility in Olkiluoto.
May 2001, Finnish parliament voted in favour of the repository.
Investigation phase involving construction (planned mid-2004) and research at an underground rock characterization facility (ONKALO), 2000-2010.
A pplication for the construction licence scheduled for the early 2010s.
Start of operation scheduled for the year 2020.
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| Waste management facilities |
Storage
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Interim Spent fuel Storage facilities;
KPA - Olkiluoto
Loviisa
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Disposal
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VLJ Repository - Olkiluoto; near-surface disposal, L/ILW
Loviisa; near-surface disposal, L/ILW.
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Research
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Rock Characterisation Facility (deep geological disposal), Olkiluoto, Posiva, start of construction in 2004.
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Additional information
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| Country: |
JAPAN
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Nuclear Power
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52 reactors; 46GWe total; 35% of electricity
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Responsible agencies
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Ministry of Economic, Trade and Industry
Atomic Energy Commission of Japan
Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency
Nuclear Safety Commission of Japan
Agency for Natural Resource and Energy
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Backend strategy
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Reprocessing option has been adopted.
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| Disposal status |
LLW / ILW
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Underground disposal facility has been under operation successfully since 1992.(Low-level Radioactive Waste Disposal Center at Rokkasho village, Aomori Pref.).
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HLW / Spent Fuel
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Deep geological disposal is the preferred option. A site selection process for a final repository is currently being carried out by Nuclear Waste Management Organization of Japan (NUMO).
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| Waste management facilities |
Storage
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Spent fuel storage occurs on-site at all NPPs. Plans to construct an interim storage facility by Tokyo Electric Power Co (TEPCO) are underway at Mutsu city, Aomori Pref. Interim storage of HLW returned from overseas reprocessing is under operation at Rokkasho village.
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Disposal
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no operating facility; no site finally identified.
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Research
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Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA)
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Additional information
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- The nuclear utilities make payments annually into an external fund for the disposal of HLW.
- The fund is administered and managed by the Radioactive Waste Management Funding and Research Center (RWMC).
- Payments are made by each utility and are adjusted on a yearly basis, the amount being based on the previous year's production of High-Level Waste.
- Provisions are generated by a 200 yen(~1c)/MWh levy on electricity sales.
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| Country: |
NETHERLANDS
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Nuclear Power
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1 reactor; 450 MWe total; 3.5 % Dutch electricity (see http://www.epz.nl ).
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Responsible agencies
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Dutch Government via the company COVRA (Central Organisation for Radioactive Waste).
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Backend strategy
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Reprocessing.
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| Disposal status |
LLW / ILW
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In 1984, a decision was made by the Dutch Government to store all waste at a central Interim Storage facility for a period of 50 - 100 years. Waste is processed and stored at COVRA.
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HLW / Spent Fuel
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A Retrievable Disposal concept is currently under investigation. The spent nuclear fuel elements from the NPP Dodewaard and Borsele are reprocessed in facilities overseas. The waste is then sent back to The Netherlands and stored at the COVRA site in the HABOG building.
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| Waste management facilities |
Storage
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Any company in the Netherlands licensed to work with radioactive materials under the nuclear energy act, is bound by law to tender its waste to COVRA. (See above for details).
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Disposal
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No final disposal sites identified.
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Research
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NRG, The Nuclear Research & Consultancy Group ( NRG ).
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Additional information
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| Country: |
SWEDEN
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Nuclear Power
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11 reactors; ~ 9,5 GWe total; ~ 46% of electricity
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Responsible agencies
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Implementer: SKB;
Regulators: SKI;
SSI;
Advisory group: KASAM
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Backend strategy
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Direct disposal in crystalline bedrock
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| Disposal status |
LLW
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SFR (Final repository for radioactive operational waste) in Forsmark was taken into operation 1988. It contains four underground caverns and one silo.
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HLW
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Feasibility studies of eight sites were completed in 2001. Site investigations have been started on two of the sites (Forsmark and Oskarshamn). An application to conduct a detailed characterization of one of these sites is expected to be filed in 2008.
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| Waste management facilities |
Storage
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Short-term storage at all reactors. Interim storage of HLW at CLAB (Central interim storage facility for spent nuclear fuel) in Oskarshamn.
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Disposal
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Disposal of LLW in SFR (see item 4 above).
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Research
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Rock Laboratory (crystalline) at Äspö, outside Oskarshamn.
The Canister Laboratory in Oskarshamn.
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Additional information
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The Decommissioning Act was passed by the Parliament in 1997, and decommissioning has commenced with the reactor Barsebäck 1, which was closed in 1999.
With the purpose to reach an agreement on a long-term and sustainable policy for the phasing out of nuclear power has the Government invited the power sector to negotiations.
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| Country: |
SWITZERLAND
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Nuclear Power
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5 reactors; ~3 GWe total; ~40% of electricity
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Responsible agencies
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Implementer: Nagra
Regulator: HSK
Advisory group: EKRA
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Backend strategy
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Both reprocessing and direct disposal options are kept open; presently around one third of the expected spent fuel arisings are contracted for reprocessing.
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| Disposal concepts and status |
LLW
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underground disposal planned (caverns); site selected by Nagra at Wellenberg; refused in a public referendum September 2002.
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HLW
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Crystalline and clays investigated; feasibility project for crystalline submitted 1985; feasibility project for Opalinus clay submitted 2002; preferred siting region Zürcher Weinland; international option kept open; implementation date 2040-2050.
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| Waste management facilities |
Storage
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Storage at all reactors; Interim storage of SF and HLW at ZWIBEZ and at ZWILAG; interim storage of government wastes at BZS.
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Disposal
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no operating facility; no sites finally identified.
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Research
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Rock Laboratory (crystalline) Grimsel
Rock Laboratory (clay) at Mont Terri
Paul Scherrer Research Institute (PSI)
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Additional information
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Currently (2002) two referenda on the future of nuclear power and a new Nuclear Energy Act are pending
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