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Nuclear Power in China

 (2 July 2009)

• Mainland China has eleven nuclear power reactors in commercial operation, 14 under construction, and at least ten more about to start construction in 2009. 
• Additional reactors are planned, including some of the world's most advanced, to give a sixfold increase in nuclear capacity to at least 50 GWe or possibly to 60 GWe by 2020 and then a further three to fourfold increase to 120-160 GWe by 2030.
• The country aims to become self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the fuel cycle. 
• Electricity demand is growing very rapidly. 
• Mainland China is starting to rely heavily on imported uranium to fuel its nuclear power program. 

Most of mainland China's electricity is produced from fossil fuels (80% from coal, 2% from oil, 1% from gas in 2006) and hydro power (15%).   Two large hydro projects are recent additions: Three Gorges of 18.2 GWe and Yellow River of 15.8 GWe. Rapid growth in demand has given rise to power shortages, and the reliance on fossil fuels has led to much air pollution. The economic loss due to pollution is put by the World Bank at 6% of GDP.

Nationally about 508 GWe was installed (15% growth in 2005) and 2475 billion kWh was generated in 2005.  In 2006 some 102 GWe of generating capacity was added - a 20% growth, then a further 91 GWe was added in 2007, and 92 GWe in 2008, making 793 GWe. About three quarters of the power is used in industry. While coal is the main energy source, most reserves are in the north or northwest and present an enormous logistic problem – nearly half the country's rail capacity is used in transporting coal. 

The State Power Grid Corporation supplied 3430 billion kWh in 2008 and (earlier) expected to supply 3810 billion kWh in 2010 from 850-900 GWe.  Growth is then expected to slow to 2020, when capacity is expected to reach 1600 GWe.  At the end of 2007 there was reported to be 145 GWe of hydro capacity, 554 GWe fossil fuel, 9 GWe nuclear and 4 GWe wind, total 713 GWe.  The grid system is sophisticated and rapidly growing, utilising ultra high voltage (1000 kv AC and 800 kv DC).  By 2020 the capacity of the UHV network is expected to be some 300 GW, of which hydro power will account for 78 GW, and wind power from the north a further significant portion.  Wind capacity by 2020 is planned to be 100 GWe.

Because of the heavy reliance on old coal-fired plant, electricity generation accounts for much of the country's air pollution, which is a strong reason to increase nuclear share. China is the second-largest contributor to energy-related carbon dioxide emissions after the USA. The IEA (2004) predicted that its share in global emissions - mainly from the power sector - would increase from 14% in 202 to 19% in 2030, but this now looks conservative. 

Moves to build nuclear power commenced in 1970 and the industry has now moved to a steady development phase. Technology has been drawn from France, Canada and Russia, with local development based largely on the French element. The latest technology acquisition has been from the USA and France.

Nuclear power has an important role, especially in the coastal areas remote from the coalfields and where the economy is developing rapidly. In 2007 it provided 62.86 billion kWh - 2.3% of total, and there is now 8.6 GWe (net) installed.  Generally, nuclear plants can be built close to centres of demand, whereas suitable wind and hydro sites are remote from demand

The government had planned to increase nuclear generating capacity to 40 GWe by 2020 (of total 1000 GWe then planned), with a further 18 GWe nuclear being under construction then, requiring an average of 2 GWe per year being added. In May 2007 the National Development and Reform Commission announced that its target for nuclear generation capacity in 2030 was 160 GWe.  In March 2008 the newly-formed State Energy Bureau (SEB) said that the target for 2020 should be at least 5% of electricity from nuclear power, requiring at least 50 GWe to be in operation by then.  In June 2008 the China Electrical Council projected 60 GWe of nuclear capacity by 2020. In April 2009 the State Council was reported to be considering raising the 2020 target to 70 GWe installed and 18 GWe under construction.

The first two nuclear power plants in mainland China were at Daya Bay near Hong Kong and Qinshan, south of Shanghai, with construction starting in the mid 1980s. 

Operating Mainland Nuclear Power Reactors 

Units	Province	Type	Net capacity (each)	Commercial operation	Operator
Daya Bay-1 & 2	Guangdong	PWR	944 MWe	1994	CGNPC
Qinshan-1	Zhejiang	PWR	279 MWe	April 1994	CNNC
Qinshan-2 & 3	Zhejiang	PWR	610 MWe	2002, 2004	CNNC
Lingao-1 & 2	Guangdong	PWR	935 MWe	2002, 2003	CGNPC
Qinshan-4 & 5	Zhejiang	PHWR	665 MWe	2002, 2003	CNNC
Tianwan-1 & 2	Jiangsu	PWR (VVER)	1000 MWe	2007	CNNC
total (11)			8587 MWe

Daya Bay reactors are standard 3-loop French PWR units supplied by Framatome, with GEC-Alstom turbines. Electricite de France (EDF) managed construction, starting August 1987, with the participation of Chinese engineers. Commercial operation of the two units was in February and May 1994. There were long outages in 1994-96 when Framatome had to replace major components. Reactor vessel heads were replaced in 2004. The plant produces about 13 billion kWh per year, with 70% transmitted to Hong Kong and 30% to Guangdong.

Lingao phase 1 reactors are virtually replicas of adjacent Daya Bay in Guangdong province. Construction started in May 1997 and Lingao-1 started up in February 2002 entering commercial operation in May. Lingao-2 was connected to the grid about September 2002 and entered commercial operation in January 2003. The two Lingao reactors use French technology supplied by Framatome ANP, but with 30% localisation. They are now designated CPR-1000. They are reported to have cost $1800 per kilowatt.

Daya Bay and Lingao together comprise the "Daya Bay nuclear power base" under the common management of Daya Bay Nuclear Power Operations & Management Co (DNMC), part of China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC).

Qinshan-1, in Zhejiang province 100 km SW of Shanghai, is China's first indigenously-designed and constructed nuclear power plant (though with the pressure vessel supplied by Mitsubishi, Japan). Design was by the Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research & Design Institute (SNERDI). Construction work spanned 6.5 years from March 1985, with criticality in Dec 1991. It was shut down for 14 months for major repairs from mid 1998.

In October 2007 Qinshan-1 is being shut down for a major upgrade which is expected to take two months - a very short period for what is involved. The entire instrument and control system will be replaced, along with the reactor pressure vessel head and control rod drives. Areva NP is supervising the work, which is likely to lead to life extension beyond the original 30 years.

Qinshan phase 2 (units 2 and 3) are locally-designed and constructed 2-loop reactors, scaled up from Qinshan-1, and designated CNP-600. Unit 2 started up at the end of 2001 and entered commercial operation in April 2002. Unit 3 started up in March 2004, with commercial operation in May 2004.

Qinshan phase 3 (units 4 and 5) use the CANDU 6 Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) technology, with Atomic Energy of Canada (AECL) being the main contractor of the project on a turnkey basis. Construction began in 1997. They are each about 665 MWe net. Unit 4 started up in September 2002 and unit 5 in April 2003.

Tianwan phase 1 at at Lianyungang city in Jiangsu province is a Russian AES-91 power plant (with two 1060 MWe VVER reactors) constructed under a cooperation agreement between China and Russia - the largest such project ever. The cost is reported to be US$ 3.2 billion, with China contributing $1.8 billion of this. The reactors incorporate Finnish safety features and Siemens-Areva instrumentation and control systems. Completion was delayed due to corrosion in the steam generators which resulted in some tubes having to be plugged with a net loss of capacity of about 2%. The first unit was grid connected in May 2006 and put into commercial operation in June 2007. The second was grid connected in May 2007, with commercial operation in August 2007. Design life is 40 years. 

Tenth Economic Plan (2001-2005) - consolidation and vision

The 10th 5-year plan incorporated the construction of eight nuclear power plants, though the timeline for contracts was extended, putting the last two into the 11th plan.  In May 2004 the China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) applied to build eight (4 pairs of) new reactors, four of them for China Guangdong Nuclear Power Company (CGNPC):

Lingao phase 2 (Lingdong) in Guangdong province, to duplicate the CPR-1000 Lingao nuclear plant, based on the same Framatome technology as phase 1.

Qinshan phase 4 in Zhejiang province, duplicating the indigenous CNP-600 units, upgraded to 650 MWe.

Also the following, which slipped to the Eleventh Plan:

Sanmen, in Zhejiang province, using advanced foreign technology and design, and

Yangjiang, in Guangdong province, 500 km west of Hong Kong, similarly (originally).

In July 2004 the State Council formally approved the two CPR-1000 units at Lingao.

The two CNP-600 Qinshan units of 650 MWe were subsequently approved and CNNC announced that the next two there would be 1000 MWe indigenous units (now seen as very unlikely or much delayed).

While the bidding process for the delayed Generation 3 plants (see below) was in train over more than two years, the Guangdong Nuclear Power Group (CGNPC) signed contracts with Chinese designers and manufacturers for two CPR-1000 reactors as phase 2 of the Lingao power station.  Construction started in December 2005 and the 1080 MWe units (based on Lingao phase 1 designs) are due on line in 2010 and 2011.  Unit 1 of Lingao phase 2 (Lingdong) will be 50% localised and unit 2 will be 70% localised, under the project management of China Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation (CNPEC), part of CGNPC.  Turbine-generator sets are being provided by Alstom.  In June 2009 the first Chinese-made reactor pressure vessel for a 1000 MWe reactor was delivered for Ling Ao phase 2 (unit 4), from Dongfang (Guangzhou) Heavy Machinery Co.

Construction of Qinshan phase 4 (or second stage of phase II) was formally inaugurated at the end of April 2006, though first concrete had been poured for unit 6 in March.  That for unit 7 was poured in January 2007.  Local content of the two 650 MWe CNP-600 reactors will be more than 70% and scheduled construction time is 60 months.

Eleventh Economic Plan (2006-2010) - stepping up to Generation-3 technology, plus more emphasis on basic technology

The 11th 5-year plan 2006-10 has firmer environmental goals than previously, including reduction of 20% in the amount of energy required per unit of GDP, ie 4% reduction per year.

As well as the Sanmen and Yangjiang projects slipped from the tenth plan, nuclear power developments originally proposed in the 11th 5-year plan included: 

four CPR-1000 units at Hongyanhe, Liaoning province (NE),
two 1000 MWe units at Haiyang, Shandong province (now 1100 MWe AP1000),
two 1000 MWe units at Fuqing, Fujian province,
two units at Hongshiding, Rushan city, Shandong province,
two units at Tianwei, Lufeng in Guangdong province,
two units at Taishan in Guangdong.

In 2007 it was announced that three state-owned corporations had been approved to own and operate nuclear power plants: CNNC, CGNPC and China Power Investment Corporation (CPI).  Any other public or private companies are to have minority shares in new projects.  CGNPC is increasingly preeminent in actual nuclear power plants.

The great leap forward: first Generation-3 plants

In September 2004 the State Council approved plans for two units at Sanmen, followed by six units at Yangjiang (two to start with), these to be 1000 or 1500 MWe reactors.  The Sanmen and Yanjiang plants were subject to an open bidding process for third-generation designs from overseas, with contracts to be awarded in mid 2006 - in the event, mid 2007, putting them clearly into the eleventh plan. 

This open bidding process underlined the extent to which China is making itself part of the world nuclear industry, and yet at first remaining somewhat ambivalent about that.

Three bids were received for the four Sanmen and Yangjiang reactors: from Westinghouse (AP1000 reactors), Areva (EPR) and Atomstroyexport (V-392 version of VVER-1000). The State Nuclear Power Technology Corporation (SNPTC), directly under China's State Council, is in charge of technology selection for new plants being bid from overseas.

The US, French and Russian governments were reported to be giving firm support as finance and support arrangements were put in place. The US Export-Import bank approved $5 billion in loan guarantees for the Westinghouse bid, and the French Coface company was expected similarly to finance Areva for Framatome ANP's bid. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission gave approval for Westinghouse to export equipment and engineering services as well as the initial fuel load and one replacement for the four units. Bids for both 2-unit plants were received in Beijing on behalf of the two customers: China Guangdong Nuclear Power Co (CGNPC) for Yangjiang, and CNNC for Sanmen (in Zhejiang province). Bids were for the nuclear portion of each plant only, the turbine tenders to be called for subsequently.

Bids were assessed on level of technology, the degree to which it is proven, price, local content, and technology transfer - which apparently became the major factor. Areva and Westinghouse were short-listed, with their third-generation technology. However, the decision on reactor type was delayed, and came under review at the highest political level, with CNNC evidently pushing for the use of indigenous second-generation designs for both sites.

In December 2006, 22 months after the bids were submitted and after several revisions to them, the Westinghouse AP1000 reactor design was selected for four units at Sanmen and Yangjiang, later changed to Haiyang in the more northerly Shandong province. This will give China a leading position with late 3rd generation reactor technology and provide the platform for China's further nuclear technology development. SNPTC is responsible for all this and is expected to become the licensee for the AP1000 units, the first of which is expected to be operating at Sanmen about the end of 2013. Project control will be with CNNC for Sanmen and CPI for Haiyang. 

At the end of February 2007 a framework agreement was signed between Westinghouse and SNPTC specifying Haiyang in Shandong province, controlled by CPI, as the site of the second pair of AP1000 units, with Sanmen.  The Shandong Nuclear Power Company Ltd had been set up in 2004 as a subsidiary of CPI to build and operate the Shandong Haiyang nuclear power project.

In April 2007 Westinghouse signed a US$ 350 million contract with Doosan Heavy Industries in Korea for two pressure vessels and four steam generators. Those for the other two AP1000 units are likely to be made in China: the reactor vessels and steam generators by Harbin Boiler Works, China First Heavy Industries, or Shanghai Electric Co (SEC). Korea Power Engineering Co. (KOPEC) and Shanghai Nuclear Energy Research & Design Institute (SNERDI) will have major engineering roles.

In July 2007 Westinghouse, along with consortium partner Shaw, signed the Haiyang AP1000 contracts with SNPTC, Sanmen Nuclear Power Company, Shangdong Nuclear Power Company (a subsidiary of CPI) and China National Technical Import & Export Corporation (CNTIC) for four AP1000 reactors.  Specific terms were not disclosed but the figure of $5.3 billion for the first two was widely quoted.  Work on the site has started and first concrete is expected about September 2009.  The site will eventually have six units.

Sanmen site works commenced in February 2008 and an engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contract was signed in March 2009 between SNPTC + CNNC and China Nuclear Engineering & Construction Group (CNEC) for both units, which will be overseen by Westinghouse and Shaw.  Full construction for unit 1 started at the end of March 2009, with the first power expected late in August 2013. 

Choice of steam turbine generators for the first four AP1000 units was by CNNC and CPI, not SNPTC.  CNNC selected Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and partner Harbin Power Equipment Co as supplier for Sanmen, and CPI selected the same suppliers for Haiyang.  This will reportedly boost the capacity of the plants from their designed 1175 MWe to 1250 MWe gross.  Siemens, Alstom and Mitsubishi were bidding as subcontractors to Chinese firms.  In September 2007 Sanmen Nuclear Power Co signed a $521 million contract for two steam turbine generators of 1200 MWe.  In January 2008 Shandong Nuclear Power Co. Ltd ordered the same for Haiyang.

In February 2007 it was reported that EdF had entered a cooperation agreement with CGNPC to build and operate a 2-unit EPR power station This deal was not expected to involve the technology transfer which is central to the Westinghouse contracts, since the EPR has multiple redundant safety systems rather than passive safety systems and is seen to be more complex and expensive, hence of less long-term interest to China. However, negotiations with Areva and EdF dragged on and in August 2007 it was announced that the EPR project had been shuffled to Taishan so that CPR-1000 units could be built at Yangjiang as soon as possible.

The Taishan nuclear plant in Guangdong province was planned by CGNPC to have six 1000 MWe class units but will now host Areva's 1650 MWe EPR units, starting with two of them stretched to 1700 MWe.  CGNPC has long preferred French technology and in November 2007 Areva initialised a contract with CGNPC for the two nuclear units plus supply of fuel to 2026 and other materials and services for them.  CGNPC authorized construction in July 2008 and first concrete is scheduled for September 2009.  Areva has begun construction of major components for both units.  The Arabelle steam turbines and 1750 MWe generators are being purchased separately from Alstom and Dongfang Electric Co.  CGNPC and Areva are also setting up an engineering joint venture, building on Areva's European experience. See following section.

EdF will take a 30% share in the Taishan project as joint venture partner with CGNPC in the Guangdong Taishan Nuclear Power JV Company which will oversee the building, then own and operate the plant.  EdF will pay EUR 600 to 800 million over four years for this share, subject to approval by NDRC and the Ministry of Commerce.  The whole project, including fuel supply, totals EUR 8 billion, of which the nuclear reactors themselves are reported to be about EUR 3.5 billion.  Steam turbine generators costing EUR 300 million are included in the larger sum.  (EdF is project manager and architect for the Flamanville-3 EPR project in France, and this initiative consolidates its change in corporate strategy outside France as expressed already in the UniStar JV set up in mid 2007 with Constellation in USA to build, own and operate a fleet of US-EPRs in North America.)

Back to basics: multiple CPR-1000s

After plans changed in the light of pressing generation needs in the region, Yangjiang will be the second nuclear power base of the Guangdong Nuclear Power Group.  Development of all six units of the plant was approved in 2004, with CPR-1000 later confirmed as technology for it.  Construction of the first of two units started in December 2008, for commercial operation in 2013.  The second pair of units will follow closely, then the final two (as phase 2), with the last being built by 2017.  Total cost is put at CNY 70 billion ($10.1 billion).  Yangjiang 1-6 and a further 14 units, along with six units at Lingao and Daya Bay, will be operated under regional Daya Bay (DNMC) management. 

 Nuclear reactors under construction and planned 

Plant	Province	MWe gross	Type	Project control	Start const.	Operation
Lingao-2 (units 3 & 4)	Guangdong	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	12/05, 5/06	12/10, 8/11
Qinshan 4 (units 6 & 7)	Zhejiang	2x650	CNP-600	CNNC	4/06, 1/07	2011, 2012
Hongyanhe 1 (units 1-4)	Liaoning	4x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	8/07, 4/08, 3/09, 7/10	10/12, 2014
Ningde 1 (units 1-4)	Fujian	4x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	2/08, 11/08, 15/11/09, 15/7/10	12/12 - 2015
Yangjiang 1 (units 1-4)	Guangdong	4x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	12/08, 15/8/09, 15/7/10, 15/3/11	8/13 - 2016
Fuqing 1 (units 1-2)	Fujian	2 x 1080	CPR-1000	CNNC	11/08, 6/09	10/13, 8/14
Fangjiashan (Qinshan 5)	Zhejiang	2 x 1080	CPR-1000	CNNC	12/08, 6/09	12/13, 10/14
Sanmen 1 (units 1 & 2)	Zhejiang	2x1100	AP1000	CNNC	3/09, 2010	10/13, 2014
Haiyang (units 1 & 2)	Shandong	2x1100	AP1000	CPI	9/2009, ?	2014-15
Taishan 1  (units 1 & 2)	Guangdong	2x1700	EPR	CGNPC	1/9/09, 1/7/10	12/13, 11/14
Shidaowan	Shandong	200	HTR-PM	China Huaneng	9/09	2013 or 2014
Fangchengang	Guangxi	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	15/12/09, ?	2014, ?
Fuqing 2 (units 3-6)	Fujian	4x1080	CPR-1000	CNNC	2010?
Tianwan 2  (units 3 & 4)	Jiangsu	2x1060	AES-91	CNNC	2009?
Hongshiding 1(Rushan)	Shandong	2x1080	CPR-1000	CNEC/CNNC	2009	2015
Changjiang 1	Hainan	2x650	CNP-600	CNNC	2/2009	2014, 2015
Dafan 1, Xianning	Hubei	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	2009, 2010
Xiaomoshan 1	Hunan	2x1100	AP1000	CPI	2010
Pengze 1	Jiangxi	2x1100	AP1000	CPI	2010	2015
Haiyang 2 (units 3 & 4)	Shandong	2x1100	AP1000	CPI	2010?
Wuhu	Anhui	2x1080	CPR-1000	CGNPC	late 2011	2015
total 49	51,740 MWe

Main numbers = phase, Bold = construction started

On WNA reactor table, those here not under construction are "planned". At 30 June 2009, 14 under construction: 14,280 MWe, 35 planned, 37,460 MWe.

 

 

Construction of the first unit of the Hongyanhe nuclear power plant in Donggang town at Wafangdian, 100 km north of Dalian, Liaoning started in August 2007, though site works had been under way since July 2006. The cost of all four 1080 MWe CPR-1000 units in phase 1 is put at CNY 50 billion (US$ 6.6 billion). China Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation (CNPEC), part of CGNPC, is managing the project - the first nuclear plant in the northeast of China. Shanghai Electric won a US$ 260 million contract for equipment and Alstom is to provide the four turbine-generator sets for US$ 184 million. Commercial operation is planned for 2012-14.

Construction of CGNPC's 6-unit  Ningde nuclear power plant commenced in 2008.  This is at Qinyu, Ningde city in northeast of Fujian province and phase 1 comprises four CPR-1000 units.  The project was approved by the National Development & Reform Commission (NDRC) in September 2006, and local content will be over 70%.  Construction of the first unit started in February 2008, and CGNPC expects commercial operation of it after 58 months, in 2012, with the others following to 2015.  First concrete for the second unit was in November.  Total cost for four units was put at $7.2 billion. 

Construction of the 6-unit Fuqing nuclear power plant 170 km south of Ningde also commenced in 2008 at Qianxe, Fuqing city in Fujian, near Fuzhou.  The Fujian Fuqing Nuclear Co Ltd was set up in May 2006 with 49% held by China Huadian Corp.  CNNC is responsible for the project which will need to use CGNPC's CPR-1000 reactors since alternatives are not licensed.  First concrete for unit 1 was poured in November 2008, and for unit 2 in June 2009.  Commercial operation is expected in 2013 and 2014.  Site works are under way for a further four units at the site, total expected cost being CNY 100 billion ($14.6 billion).

Construction of CNNC's Fangjiashan plant started at the end of December 2008.  It is close to Qinshan in Zhejiang province and essentially an extension of it, using CPR-1000 reactors.

 

China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group plans to 2020

In June 2008 Dongfang Electric Group announced a 5 billion yuan ($725 million) contract for steam turbine generators for CNNC's Fuqing and Fangjiashan plants.

Stage 1 of  CGNPC’s  Fangchengang  power plant at Bailong in Fangchengang city of Guangxi Autonomous region was approved by NDRC in October 2008, for two 1000 MWe units (of six planned).  This followed a US$ 3.1 billion agreement signed in July 2006 for construction of the first two units in south China, close to the Vietnam border. CPI is keen to see this proceed, and first concrete is expected at the end of 2009.

In October 2006 a preliminary agreement for two further 1060 MWe AES-91 reactors at Tianwan  in Lianyungang city of Jiangsu province was signed with Russia's Atomstroyexport. Construction was to start when both the first two units were commissioned, and hence in November 2007 a further agreement for their actual construction was signed by CNNC.  Timing is uncertain but the project is expected to cost $3.8 billion.

In November 2006 an agreement was signed by CNNC to proceed with the first two units of the Rushan nuclear plant at Hongshiding near Weihai  in Shandong province, costing US$ 3.2 billion, with construction to begin in 2009 and first power in 2015.  Six units totaling 6000-8000 MWe are envisaged at the site.

CNNC's Changjiang nuclear power plant on Hainan Island is expected to start construction in 2009 for operation by the end of 2015.  It will comprise two 650 MWe PWR units, and China Huaneng group (CHNG) will hold a 49% share in the Hainan Nuclear Power Co Ltd.  More than 70% of its equipment is to be made in China.

A demonstration high-temperature gas-cooled reactor plant, with twin HTR-PM delivering 210 MWe was approved in November 2005, to be built at Shidaowan, near Rongcheng in Weihai city, Shandong province, by Huaneng Shandong Shidaowan Nuclear Power Company (HSSNPC).  This joint venture is led by the China Huaneng Group Co. - the country's largest generating utility but hitherto without nuclear capacity.  The project received environmental clearance in March 2008 for construction start in September 2009 and commissioning by 2013.  The EPC contract was let in October 2008, and involves Shanghai Electric Co and Harbin Power Equipment Co.  This will be the demonstration plant for 18 further modules at the site, total 3800 MWe.  (see also R&D section below)

Twelfth Economic Plan (2011-2015) - consolidating and accelerating, moving inland

Phase 2 of Haiyang, mentioned above, is probably in the 12th Plan.  In March 2009 the NDRC approved preliminary works for units 3 and 4 at the CPI site, to be AP1000 units.  Construction is expected to start late in 2010.

In August 2008 CGNPC and Hubei Energy Group Ltd set up the Hubei Nuclear Power Company as a joint venture and announced plans to build a nuclear power plant in Xianning city of the inland Hubei province.  Site works for this Dafan plant (four CPR-1000 units) in Xishui county are under way and construction may start as early as 2009.  Cost of first two phases (4000 MWe) is put at CNY 50 billion ($7.3 billion).  A third phase is estimated to cost CNY 45 billion.  Possible projects in Yangxin county and Zhongxiang city have been mentioned. 

The Wuhu nuclear plant on the Yangtze River in the Bamaoshan area of Anhui province is planned to have four 1000 MWe CPR-1000 units to be constructed in phases.  CGNPC's proposal for two units of phase 1 has been submitted, some preparatory work is under way and the Anhui Wuhu Nuclear Power Co has been set up, with 51% CGNPC ownership.  The first unit is due on line in 2015.   CNNC was reported as starting a feasibility study on another nuclear plant in the province, at Jiyang in Chizhou city, in December 2008.

The Pengze plant in Jiangxi province, with four AP1000 reactors costing CNY 60 billion ($8.72 billion) is expected to start construction early in 2010.  The site has been prepared for the first two units, and safety and environmental approvals have been obtained, but NDRC approval and contract with Westinghouse are pending.  CPI aims to start construction in 2010.  The project is inland in Juijiang city, on the Yangtze River, and will use cooling towers. 

CPI's Xiaomoshan nuclear power plant on the Yangtze River in Yueyang city, Hunan province (inland), will have four AP1000 reactors and be built by Hunan Nuclear Power Company Ltd in two phases.  NDRC approval was given in 2006 and first concrete is expected late in 2010.  The cost is put at CNY 60 billion ($8.77 billion). 

In November 2007 China Huaneng Group (CHNG) signed an agreement with CGNPC for the Huaneng Nuclear Power Development Company to build four CPR-1000 reactors at Rongcheng/ Shidaowan in Shandong province in an $8 billion deal. A letter of intent regarding the first two was signed in 2008.  However, it now appears that this will become another AP1000 project.  Further partners may become involved as National Development and Reform Commission approval is sought. Construction is expected to start in 2012-13.

CGNPC's Lianyungang nuclear power project is planned by it with four units of 1000 MWe class to be constructed in phases. This is in Jiangsu province close to CNNC's Tianwan plant and involving the Jiangsu Nuclear Power Company. A proposal has been submitted to the NRDC and preparations for the project are proceeding, but prospects in the 12th plan are uncertain.

CGNPC expects to spend US$ 9.5 billion on its Lingao-2, Yangjiang and Taishan nuclear power plants by 2010 and to have 6000 MWe on line by then, with 12,000 MWe under construction.  Work is under way at all these sites and also at Ningde.  It is also making efforts to start on the Lufeng plant at Shanwei in Guangdong and Wuhu in Anhui province, but awaits NDRC approval.  It is expecting to have 34,000 MWe nuclear capacity on line by 2020, providing 20% of the province's power, and 16,000 MWe under construction then.  From 2010 it expects to commission 3 units per year and from 2015 4 units per year.  CGNPC is also, due to State Council policy, committed to developing significant wind capacity through CGN Wind Co.  It projects a total of 500 MWe by 2020.

CNNC said in December 2006 that it planned to build four 100 MWe units at Heyuan, inland in NE Guangdong, at a cost of US$ 6.4 billion, but no timing was mentioned.

More than 16 provinces, regions and municipalities have announced intentions to build nuclear power plants in the 12th 5-year Plan 2011-15.  These include Henan and Sichuan, as well as those tabulated above - most of which have preliminary project approval by the central government but are not necessarily scheduled for construction.  Provinces put together firm proposals with reactor vendors by 2008 and submitted them to the central government's National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) for approval during 2009.  NRDC consideration is via the new National Energy Administration (NEA).  A great many proposals were received, many of which will be deferred to the 13th Plan.

In its 2007 Annual Report CPI said that at the end of the 12th Five-year plan it expected to have 100 GWe of controllable installed capacity including three nuclear power bases: Liaoning, Shandong and inland.

Further nuclear power units proposed  

all PWR except Weihai HTR. Numbers = phase 

Some of these entries are based on sketchy information.  For WNA Reactor table, 80% of numbers and capacity from this table are used as "Proposed". 

In 2006 CNNC signed agreements in Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong and Hunan provinces and six cities in Hunan, Anhui and Guangdong provinces to develop nuclear projects. CNNC has pointed out that there is room for 30 GWe of further capacity by 2020 in coastal areas and maybe more inland such as Hunan "where conditions permit". In October 2007 CNNC's list of projects included Chuanshan (Jiangsu province), Jiyang (Anhui), Hebao Island (Guangdong), Shizu (Chongqing), Xudabao (Liaoning) and Qiaofushan (Hebei) as well as others tabulated above.

In July 2008 it was announced that Sichuan province in the southwest was planning the 4000-6000 MWe Sanba nuclear power plant at Nanchong city on the Jialing River, at a cost of CNY 25 billion ($3.7 billion).  Majority ownership would be CGNPC.

In May 2009 Platts reported that CHNG had selected five sites for nuclear plants after Rongcheng: Cangnan in Zhejiang province, Huaining in Anhui, Xuyi in Jiangsu, Xiapu in Fujian and Yingtan in Jiangxi.

In November 2007 the NDRC said that the government had budgeted CNY 450 billion ($65 billion) to build nuclear power capacity by 2020.  It had selected 13 coastal sites to accommodate 59.46 GWe.

The complex ownership structure of Chinese nuclear plants is described in the Organisation section below.

Reactor technology

China has set the following points as key elements of its nuclear energy policy:

• PWRs will be the mainstream but not sole reactor type.
• nuclear fuel assemblies are fabricated and supplied indigenously.
• domestic manufacturing of plant and equipment will be maximised, with self-reliance in design and project management.
• international cooperation is nevertheless encouraged.

The technology base for further reactors remains officially undefined, though the first round of the struggle between the established CNNC pushing for indigenous technology and the small but well-connected State Nuclear Power Technology Corp (SNPTC) favouring imported technology was won by SNPTC. In particular SNPTC proposes use of indigenized 1000+ MWe plants with advanced third-generation technology, arising from Westinghouse AP1000 designs built at Sanmen and Haiyang.

In September 2006 the head of the China Atomic Energy Authority said that he expected large numbers of third-generation PWR reactors derived from foreign technology to be built from about 2016, after experience is gained with the initial Sanmen and Haiyang AP1000 plants.  Westinghouse announced in 2008 that it is working with SNPTC and Shanghai Nuclear Engineering Research & Design Institute (SNERDI) to develop jointly a passively safe larger design from the AP1000, probably of 1400 MWe for large-scale deployment and possibly export.  The agreement with Westinghouse is for the company to transfer technology over the first four AP1000 units so that SNPTC can build the following ones on its own.  The further development with SNERDI opens the possibility of China itself exporting the new larger units with Westinghouse cooperation.  The first of the larger design, the CAP-1400, is expected to be built at the Rongcheng/ Shidaowan site following the four AP1000 units there.  Construction is expected to start in 2013 and SNPTC hopes to have the lead unit completed in 2017.  It may be followed by a CAP-1700 design, and China will own the intellectual property rights for these two larger designs.

CNNC had been working with Westinghouse and Framatome ANP (Areva NP) at SNERDI since the early 1990s to develop a Chinese standard 3-loop PWR design, the CNP-1000 based on Qinshan units, with high (60 GWd/t) burn-up, 18 month refueling cycle and 20 more fuel assemblies than the French-origin units.  In 1997 the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC) at Chengdu became involved in the reactor design and early in 2007 SNERDI was reassigned to concentrate on the AP1000 program.  CNNC has been keen to create its own brand of advanced second-generation reactor such as this with intellectual property rights, and wanted to build two initial CNP-1000 plants at Fangjiashan, adjacent to Qinshan near Shanghai in the 11th Economic Plan, though the design probably would not have been ready.  In early 2007 the CNP-1000 development was put on hold indefinitely, though this created a problem in relation to export plans for two CNP-1000 units to Pakistan.

Guangdong Nuclear Power's indigenous focus has been on the French-derived 3-loop units such as at Lingao, without major modification, and now called CPR-1000 or "improved Chinese PWR", designated Generation 2+, with digital instrumentation and control.  It has 157 fuel assemblies.  However, Areva retains intellectual property rights for this, which constrains overseas sales since they would need agreement from Areva on a case by case basis, and this would be unlikely in competition with the Atmea1 design.  The CPR-1000 is being widely and quickly deployed for domestic use under CGNPC leadership.   In June 2009 the first Chinese-made reactor pressure vessel for a 1000 MWe reactor was delivered for Ling Ao phase II, from Dongfang (Guangzhou) Heavy Machinery Co.

In October 2008 Areva and CGNPC announced establishment of an engineering joint venture as a technology transfer vehicle for development EPR and other PWR plants in China and later abroad.  The JV will be held 55% by CGNPC and other Chinese interests, and 45% by Areva.  It will engineer and procure equipment for both the ERPR and the CPR-1000.

In September 2005 Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd (AECL) signed a technology development agreement with CNNC which opened the possibility of it supplying further Candu-6 reactors. The agreement introduced a new element into the discussion on 2005 plans outlined above. AECL built the Qinshan phase III 2-unit plant on schedule and under budget and estimates that it could be replicated for 25% less cost. Any replication would be on the basis of involving local engineering teams, not on a turnkey basis, but the technology is now well understood and the decades-old Candu-6 design would likely pose less problems for technology transfer than state of the art 3rd-generation designs from Westinghouse and Areva NP. The later Korean Candu-6 plants at Wolsong had 75% local content. However, the agreement with CNNC - more specifically with its SNERDI - did look further forward to collaboration on AECL's new ACR design later on. However, SNERDI is now focused on AP-1000 engineering and reassigned to SNPTC, so early in 2008 work on Candu fuel technologies passed to another CNNC entity: the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC).

Having left the Chinese reactor market to others, in the light of China's preference for PWR designs, GE has been commending its new boiling water reactor designs for future orders there. 

In February 2006 the State Council announced that the large advanced PWR and the small high temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTR) are two high priority projects for the next 15 years. The former will depend on "Sino-foreign cooperation, in order to master international advanced technology on nuclear power and develop a Chinese third-generation large PWR". CNNC has confirmed this, while pointing longer-term to fast neutron reactors (see R&D section below).

The small HTR units were to be 200 MWe reactors with pebble bed fuel, similar to that being marketed by South Africa but plans have evolved to make them twin 100 MWe units driving a single steam turbine.  See R&D section below.

The China Zhongyuan Engineering Corporation is involved with constructing a 300 MWe nuclear power plant at Chasma in Pakistan - a twin to that already commissioned in 2000.

A 200 MWt NHR-200 integral PWR reactor for heat and desalination has been designed and engineering studies concluded in mid 2006.

Longer-term, fast neutron reactors are seen as the main technology. A 65 MWt fast neutron reactor is under construction near Beijing and due to achieve criticality in 2009 (se R&D section below). CNNC expects the technology to become predominant by mid century. 

Uranium resources and mining 

China's known uranium resources of 70,000 tU are theoretically sufficient to fill the requirements for the mainland nuclear program for the short-term. Production of some 840 t/yr - including that from heap leach operations at several mines in Xinjiang region - supplies about half of current needs. The balance is imported from Kazakhstan, Russia, Namibia and most recently Australia.  By international standards, China's ores are low-grade and production has been inefficient.

Operating uranium mines  

Mine	Province	Type	Nominal capacity Tonnes U per year	Started
Fuzhou	Giangxi	Underground & open pit	300	1966
Chongyi	Giangxi	Underground & open pit	120	1979
Yining	Xinjiang	In-situ leach (ISL)	200	1993
Lantian	Shaanxi	Underground	100	1993
Benxi	Liaoning	Underground	120	1996

The Fuzhou mine in the southeastern Giangxi province is in a volcanic deposit. Xinjiang's Yili basin in which the Yining (or Kujiltai) ISL mine sits is contiguous with the Ili uranium province in Kazakhstan, though the geology is apparently different. The other three mines are in granitic deposits.

China Nuclear Uranium Corporation plans to bring into production a new 200 tU/yr mine at Fuzhou, and expand the Yining ISL mine to 300 tU/yr. Pilot ISL tests have been under way on the Shihongtan deposit in the Turpan-Hami basin of Xinjiang. In addition, the Hengyang underground uranium mine is on stand-by. The mine, which started up in 1963, has a nominal production capacity of 500-1000 tU/yr.

CNNC is also developing a uranium-molybdenum mine at Guyuan, Hebei province, to start production in 2009.

CNNC's Bureau of Geology and the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology are the key organisations involved with a massive increase in exploration effort since 2000, focused on sandstone deposits amenable to ISL in the Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia regions.

With the prospective need to import much more uranium, China Nuclear International Uranium Corporation (SinoU) was set up by CNNC to acquire uranium resources internationally.  It is setting up a mine in Niger and is investigating prospects in Kazakhstan (see below), Uzbekistan, Mongolia, Namibia, Algeria and Zimbabwe.  Canada and South Africa are also seen as potential suppliers for SinoU.

Sinosteel Corporation holds minor equity in explorer PepinNini Minerals Ltd in Australia and has 60% of a joint venture with PepinNini to develop a uranium deposit in South Australia.  China-based CITIC Australia holds 10.5% of Marathon Resources.  Sinosteel is also involved with exploration on Quebec and Krygistan..

In September 2007 two agreements were signed in Beijing between Kazatomprom and CGNPC on Chinese participation in Kazakh uranium mining joint ventures and on reciprocal Kazatomprom investment in China's nuclear power industry. These came in the context of an earlier strategic cooperation agreement and one on uranium supply and fuel fabrication. This is a major strategic arrangement for both companies, with Kazatomprom to become the main uranium and nuclear fuel supplier to CGNPC. A framework strategic cooperation agreement was then signed with CNNC.  A CGNPC subsidiary, Sino-Kazakhstan Uranium Resources Investment Co, has invested in two Kazakh uranium mines: Irkol and Semizbai, while CNNC is investing in another: Zhalpak.

In November 2007 CGNPC signed an agreement with Areva to take a 24.5% equity stake in its UraMin subsidiary, which is proposing mines in Namibia, South Africa and Central African Republic.  (This appears to be part of the EUR 8 billion Taishan deal - see above.)  In October 2008 Areva announced that a further 24.5% would be taken up by other "Chinese sovereign funds', though it would remain the operator.  China also agreed to buy more than half of the uranium from UraMin over the lifetime of the three deposits - the total quantity involved is over 40,000 tU.

In 2007 CNNC commissioned Sparton Resources of Canada with the Beijing No.5 Testing Institute to undertake advanced trials on leaching uranium from coal ash out of the Xiaolongtang power station in Yunnan. The ash contains 160-180 ppm U - above the cut-off level for some uranium mines. The power station ash heap contains over 1700 tU, with annual arisings of 106 tU. Two other nearby power stations burn lignite from the same mine.

Fuel cycle - front end 

A conversion plant is operating at Lanzhou, of about 1500 tU/yr, and another at Diwopu, also in Gansu province, of about 500 tU/yr.

A Russian centrifuge enrichment plant at Hanzhun, SE Shaanxi province, was set up under 1992, 1993 and 1996 agreements between Minatom/ Tenex and China Nuclear Energy Industry Corporation (CNEIC) covering a total 1.5 million SWU/yr capacity in China at two sites. The first two modules at Hanzhun came into operation in 1997-2000, giving 0.5 million SWU/yr as phases 1 & 2 of the agreements.  In November 2007 Tenex undertook to build a further 0.5 million SWU/yr of capacity at Hanzhun, completing the 1990s agreements (as phase 4 of them - phase 3 see below).  The full agreement for this US$ 1 billion plant was signed in May 2008 between Techsnabexport and China Nuclear Energy Industry Corporation.  The module will supply Russian uranium product totaling over 6 million SWU over 11 years commencing 2010.  The site is under IAEA safeguards.  Up to 2001 China was a major customer for Russian 6th generation centrifuges, and more of these are being supplied in 2009 for Hanzhun, under phase 4 of the agreement.

The Lanzhou enrichment plant in Gansu province to the west started in 1964 for military use and operated commercially 1980 to 1997 using Soviet-era diffusion technology. A Russian centrifuge plant of 500,000 SWU/yr started operation there in 2001 as phase 3 of the above agreements and it is designed to replace the diffusion capacity.

Another and larger diffusion enrichment plant operated at Heping, Sichuan province, from 1975 to 1989 for military purposes.  It was indigenously built, about 200-250,000 SWU/yr capacity, but is likely no longer operational.

A contract with Urenco supplies 30% of the enrichment for Daya Bay from Europe, and Tenex has agreed to supply 6 million SWU as low-enriched uranium to China from 2010 to 2021, this apparently being via phase 4 of the Hanzhun enrichment plant.

Enriched uranium for the first four AP1000 reactors is being supplied by Tenex from Russia, under the 2008 enrichment agreement.

Over 2003-06 enrichment for Lingao was increased from 3.2% to 4.45%.

CNNC's PWR fuel fabrication plant at Yibin, Sichuan province, was set up in 1982 to supply Qinshan-1 with 11 tonnes a year of fuel assemblies.  By 2005 its capacity was about 200 tU/yr and the target for end of 2008 is 400 tU/yr.  VVER fuel fabrication for Tianwan is due to begin in 2009.  The Yibin plant, operated by CNNC subsidiary China Jianzhong Nuclear Fuel Co Ltd,  is expected to keep expanding - to 600 tU/yr by 2010 and 1000 tU/yr or more by 2020.

CNNC set up a second fuel fabrication plant at Baotou, Inner Mongolia, in 1998.  This fabricates fuel assemblies for Qinshan's CANDU PHWRs and is operated by CNNC subsidiary China North Nuclear Fuel Co Ltd.  It is also planned to make the 9% enriched fuel spheres for the HTR-PM high temperature reactors in Shandong province here.  It may then be expanded to make fuel to the Westinghouse AP1000 reactors (first cores and some re-loads will supplied by Westinghouse).

In order meet its goal of being self-sufficient in nuclear fuel supply, additional fuel production capacity will be required.  However, the fuel for Taishan being supplied to CGNPC by Areva, comprising the two first cores and 17 reloads, will be fabricated in France. 

Used fuel and reprocessing   

When China started to develop nuclear power, a closed fuel cycle strategy was also formulated and declared at an IAEA conference in 1987. The spent fuel activities involve: at-reactor storage; away-from-reactor storage; and reprocessing. CNNC has drafted a state regulation on civil spent fuel treatment as the basis for a long-term government program.

Based on expected installed capacity of 20 GWe by 2010 and 40 GWe by 2020, the annual spent fuel arisings will amount to about 600 tonnes in 2010 and 1000 tonnes in 2020, the cumulative arisings increasing to about 3800 tonnes and 12 300 tonnes, respectively. The two CANDU units, with lower burn-up, will discharge 176 tonnes of spent fuel annually.

Construction of a centralised spent fuel storage facility at Lanzhou Nuclear Fuel Complex near Yumenzhen in NW Gansu province began in 1994. The initial stage of that project has a storage capacity of 550 tonnes and could be doubled.

A pilot (50 t/yr) reprocessing plant using the Purex process was opened in 2006 at Lanzhou or Jiayuguan. This is capable of expansion to 100 t/yr and was commissioning in 2009. A large commercial reprocessing plant based on indigenous advanced technology was planned to follow and begin operation about 2020. This is likely to be under international safeguards and situated in far western China.

In November 2007 Areva and CNNC signed an agreement to assess the feasibility of setting up a reprocessing plant for used fuel and a mixed-oxide (MOX) fuel fabrication plant in China, representing an investment of EUR 15 billion.  In mid 2008 CNNC said that the focus was on Gansu province for an 800 t/yr reprocessing plant operated by Areva from 2025.  This was reiterated in mid 2009, with the qualification that the plant would employ advanced technology from France or Russia.

Separated high-level wastes will be vitrified, encapsulated and put into a geological repository some 500 metres deep. Site selection is focused on six candidate locations and will be completed by 2020. An underground research laboratory will then operate for 20 years and actual disposal is anticipated from 2050.

Early in 2008 CCNC subsidiary the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC) signed an agreement with Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd (AECL) to undertake research on advanced fuel cycle technologies such as recycling recovered uranium from spent PWR fuel and Generation IV nuclear energy systems. Initially this seems to mean DUPIC, the Direct Use of spent PWR fuel In Candu reactors, the main work on which so far has been in South Korea. This blossomed into a strategic agreement between AECL and the Third Qinshan Nuclear Power Company, China North Nuclear Fuel Corporation and NPIC in November 2008.  The four partners will jointly develop technology for recycling used nuclear fuel from other Chinese reactors (PWRs) with up to 1.6% fissile content for use in the Qinshan 3 and 4 Candu units.

There is already industrial-scale disposal of low and intermediate-level wastes at two sites, in the northwest and at Bailong in Guangxi autonomous region of south China.

Research & Development 

Initial Chinese nuclear R&D was military.  Also a water-cooled graphite-moderated production reactor for military plutonium started operating in 1966, located at the Jiuquan Atomic Energy Complex some 100 km northwest of the city of Jiuquan in Gansu province, north-central China.  The area is mainly desert and very remote.  In the early 1980s it was decided to convert it to dual-use, and plutonium production evidently ceased in 1984.  Reprocessing was on site.  Another, larger, plutonium production reactor with associated facilities was in a steep valley at Guangyuan in Sichuan province, about 1000 km south.  It started up about 1975 and produced the major part of China's military plutonium through to 1991.

Apart from military facilities China has about 15 operational research reactors ranging in size up to 15 MW, and one 125 MW light water High-Flux Engineering Test Reactor (HFETR) run by the (Southwest) Leshan Nuclear Power Institute of China at Jiajiang, Sichuan province, since 1979.  Early in 2007 this was converted to use low-enriched uranium, with the help of the US National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA).  The 15 MW unit is a heavy water reactor which is the oldest, operating since 1958, and is under IAEA safeguards.  Two, of 60 and 65 MW, are listed as under construction.  At least one of the five in Sichuan province was near the epicentre of the May 2008 earthquake.

China has started production of the medical and industrial radioisotope cobalt-60 using CNNC's Candu 6 power reactors at Qinshan.  This will be China's first domestic production of the isotope. Candu reactors are also used to produce cobalt-60 at Wolsong in South Korea, Bruce in Canada and Embalse in Argentina.  The core of a Candu 6 has stainless steel adjusters that help to shape neutron flux to optimise power output and ensure efficient burn up of uranium fuel.  The normal cobalt in these can be replaced with cobalt-59, which absorbs neutrons to become Co-60.  After about 15 months the stainless steel 'targets' with Co-59 are withdrawn for processing.  The development is part of China’s 11th five-year plan, and should lead to the production of 220 petabecquerels (PBq) of Co-60 per year - enough to satisfy 80% of Chinese needs.  The addition will boost global production by around 10%.

The China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIEA) undertakes fundamental research on nuclear science and technology.  Its 15 MWt Heavy water research reactor started up in 1958 and was shut down at the end of 2007.  An updated version of this was supplied to Algeria and has operated since 1992.  CIEA is building the new 60 MWt China Advanced Research Reactor (CARR), a light water tank type unit which expected to start up in 2009, and also the sodium-cooled CEFR (see below).

A 10 MWt high-temperature gas-cooled demonstration reactor (HTR-10), having fuel particles compacted with graphite moderator into 60mm diameter spherical balls (pebble bed) was commissioned in 2000 by the Institute of Nuclear Energy Technology (INET) at Tsinghua University near Beijing. It reached full power in 2003 and has an outlet temperature of 700-950°C and may be used as a source of process heat for heavy oil recovery or coal gasification. It is similar to the South African PBMR intended for electricity generation. It was subject to a test of its intrinsic safety in September 2004 when as an experiment it was shut down with no cooling. Fuel temperature reached less than 1600°C and there was no failure.

Initially the HTR-10 has been coupled to a steam turbine power generation unit, but second phase plans are for it to operate at 950°C and drive a gas turbine, as well as enabling R&D in heat application technologies. This phase will involve an international partnership with Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI), focused particularly on hydrogen production.

A key R&D project is the demonstration Shidaowan HTR-PM of 210 MWe (two reactor modules, each of 250 MWt) which is being built at Shidaowan in Shandong province, driving a single steam turbine at about 40% thermal efficiency. The size was reduced to 250 MWt from earlier 458 MWt modules in order to retain the same core configuration as the prototype HTR-10 and avoid moving to an annular design like South Africa's PBMR.

China Huaneng Group, one of China's major generators, is the lead organization in the consortium with China Nuclear Engineering & Construction Group (CNEC) and Tsinghua University's INET, which is the R&D leader. Chinergy Co. is the main contractor for the nuclear island. Projected cost is US$ 430 million, with the aim for later units being US$ 1500/kWe. The licensing process is under way with NNSA, the EPC contract was let in October 2008  and construction is due to start in September 2009 with completion expected in 2013.

The HTR-PM will pave the way for 18 (3x6) further 210 MWe units at the same site in Weihai city - total 3800 MWe - also with steam cycle.  INET is in charge of R&D, and is aiming to increase the size of the 250 MWt module and also utilise thorium in the fuel.  Eventually it is intended that a series of HTRs, possibly with Brayton cycle directly driving the gas turbines, will be factory-built and widely installed throughout China.

In March 2005 an agreement between PBMR of South Africa and Chinergy Co. of Beijing was announced.  PBMR Pty Ltd has been taking forward the HTR concept (based on earlier German work) since 1993 and is ready to build a 125 MWe demonstration plant.  Chinergy Co. is drawing on the small operating HTR-10 research reactor at Tsinghua University which is the basis of their 100 MWe HTR-PM demonstration module which also derives from the earlier German development.  Both PBMR and HTR-PM were planned for operation about 2013.  The 2005 agreement was for cooperation on the demonstration projects and subsequent commercialisation, since both parties believe that the inherently safe pebble bed technology built in relatively small units will eventually displace the more complex light water reactors.  In March 2009 a new agreement was signed between PBMR and Chinergy + INET was signed.

A 65 MWt fast neutron reactor - the Chinese Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) - is nearing completion at the China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE) near Beijing, being built by Russia's OKBM Afrikantov in collaboration with OKB Gidropress, NIKIET and Kurchatov Institute.  It is sodium-cooled.  Fuel loading is expected in August 2009 and criticality in September 2009.  It is reported to have a 25 MWe turbine generator.  Based on CEFR, a 600 MWe Chinese prototype fast reactor (CPFR) was envisaged by 2020 and there was talk of a 1500 MWe one by 2030. China's R&D on fast neutron reactors started in 1964.

However, in October 2008 the Russian-Chinese Nuclear Cooperation Commission called for construction of an 800 MWe demonstration fast reactor similar to Russia's Beloyarsk-4. In May 2009 St Petersburg Atomenergopoekt said it was starting design work on a BN-800 reactor for China, with two proposed at coastal sites.  This is the OKBM design being built at Beloyarsk in Russia, and due to start up in 2012.  A decision on this project is expected about the end of 2009.  It is expected to lead to bilateral cooperation of fuel cycles for fast reactors.

A 200 MWt NHR-200 integral PWR has been developed by INET near Beijing for desalination and district heat. It is developed from the NHR-5 prototype which started up in 1989.

The NDRC is strongly supporting R&D on advanced fuel cycles which will more effectively utilise uranium, and possible also use thorium.  The main research organisations are INET at Tsinghua University, CIAE (also near Beijng) and the Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC) at Chengdu.  INET is looking at a wide range of fuel cycle options including thorium, especially for the Qinshan 3 PHWR units.  However, NPIC is the main body focused on the PHWR technology and fuel cycles, supported by Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd.  It is looking at use of reprocessed uranium in Qinshan's PHWR reactors.  CIAE is mainly involved with fast reactor R&D.

In 2008 SNPTC and Tsinghua University set up the State Research Centre for Nuclear Power Technology, focused on large-scale advanced PWR technology and to accelerate China's independent development of third-generation nuclear power.

Organisation - national 

Ministries and Commissions are at the top level under the State Council, Administrations and Bureaus are under these.

Under the State Council of Ministers, the China Atomic Energy Agency (CAEA) is responsible for planning and managing the peaceful use of nuclear energy and promoting international cooperation. . Since being split from the old CNNC in 1998, the CAEA has been the key body planning and managing civil nuclear energy and reviewing and approving feasibility studies for new plants. It is under the control of the Commission for Science, Technology & Industry for National Defence under the State Council.

The State-owned Assets Supervision & Administration Commission (SASAC) of the State Council was founded in 2003 to take over the responsibilities of the former State Economic and Trade Commission as investor of state-owned assets on behalf of the central government and in guiding state-owned enterprises' reform and management. It aims to speed up restructuring of state-owned economy and push forward reform of state-owned enterprises, as well as harvesting dividends from them.  At the end of 2007, 152 major enterprises were subordinate to it, comprising the top two or three in each sector, which gives SASAC great political and economic power.  SASAC has a major role in nuclear power expansion, along with the NDRC, and supervises CNNC and CGNPC.

The National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) as the macroeconomic management agency directly under the State Council.  It has ben finally responsible for assessment and approval of major projects, and is responsible for deciding which major nuclear power projects proceed, and when.  However, the reforms early in 2008 mean SASAC will be the primary body approving new projects, with formal approval from NDRC following.

In March 2008 a new National Energy Commission (NEC) was announced to replace the National Energy Leading Group, an advisory and coordination body directly under the State Council.  It will draft a national energy development strategy complete with various programs and then monitor and implement its execution.  At the same time the new National Energy Administration (NEA) was set up to strengthen government management of the energy sector and implement NEC policy. It is a second tier ministry under the NDRC and replaces the State Energy Bureau under NDRC, which had been ineffective.  Its nine departments, including one planning nuclear and thermal power development, work to integrate NDRC's energy management functions, promote favoured forms of energy and encourage conservation.  It is not clear how it relates to other national energy entities, but its first announcement was that nuclear energy should provide significantly more power by 2020 than previously planned.  The NDRC - NEC - NEA arrangement is seen as a political compromise and alternative to an Energy Ministry with clearer authority.

The State Nuclear Power Technology Corporation  (SNPTC)  was set up in 2004 to take charge of technology selection for new plants being bid from overseas. This is through its Preparatory Office which draws expertise from other organizations such as CGNPC. SNPTC is directly under China's State Council and closely connected with it.  Early in 2007 SNERDI (see below) was removed from CNNC control and assigned to it as an R&D arm, boosting its stature considerably.

The National Nuclear Safety Administration (NNSA) under CAEA was set up in 1984 and is the licensing and regulatory body which also maintains international agreements regarding safety. It now reports to the State Council directly.

In May 2007 a memorandum of understanding between the NNSA and the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission was signed regarding Westinghouse's AP1000 reactor design. The AP1000 gained US design certification in 2005 and Westinghouse has applied for pre-licensing design approval for it in UK, expressing its policy of global standardisation.

The State Environment Protection Administration (SEPA), now elevated to a Ministry of Environmental Protection, is a department directly under the State Council and is responsible for radiological monitoring and radioactive waste management. A utility proposing a new plant submits feasibility studies to the CAEA, siting proposals to the NNSA and environmental studies to SEPA.

The China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) controls most nuclear sector business including R&D, engineering design, uranium exploration and mining, enrichment, fuel fabrication, reprocessing and waste disposal. It also claims to be the major investor in all nuclear plants in China. Established by the State Council in 1988 as a self-supporting economic entity, it "combines military production with civilian production, taking nuclear industry as the basis while developing nuclear power and promoting a diversified economy." It has numerous subsidiaries. CNNC designed and built Qinshan 1-3 and controls the full Qinshan power plant. It has a payroll of about 1000,000 and owns shares in most of the nuclear power generation projects (see below). In particular it is a champion of local designs.

China Power Investment Corporation (CPI, formed from the State Power Corporation and inheriting all its nuclear capacity) is a major power generator and is the largest state-owned nuclear power holding company. At the end of 2004 it was reported to have assets of US$ 12.8 billion. It was at the forefront of discussions on plants for the 11th five-year plan, and by mid 2005 had submitted power projects with the total capacity of 31,460 MW to the State Development and Reform Commission (NDRC?) for approval.

The China Nuclear Energy Industry Corporation  (CNEIC) is a CNNC subsidiary established in 1980 as a trading company authorized to carry out import and export trade of uranium products, nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear power and technology equipment. It acted as agent in establishing Qinshan and Tianwan power plants.

In Guangdong province and now more widely the China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group, comprising some 20 companies and with assets of RMB 60 billion, plays the leading role. China Guangdong Nuclear Power Holding Company (CGNPC) leads this Group which is responsible for Daya Bay, Ling Ao, Yangjiang, Hongyanhe and Ningde power stations as well as further projects in the province and outside it. CGNPC was estblished in 1994 and is 45% owned by the provincial government (via Guangdong Nuclear Power Co), 45% by CNNC and 10% by CPI. There is 25% Hong Kong equity in the Daya Bay plant.

China HuaNeng Group  (CHNG), is one of China's major generators, , formed in 1988 when the State Power Ministry was broken up, with about 50 GWe in operation.  In 2005 it set up a subsidiary, HuaNeng Nuclear Power Development Co Ltd to handle nuclear power projects, initially two projects in Shandong province (see below).  It has formed links with both CNNC and CGNPC.  It is an independent state-owned but incorporated business entity focused on power generation.  It aims to have 80 GWe installed by 2010 and 120 GWe by 2020. 

China National Uranium Corporation is responsible for CNNC's uranium exploration domestically. In December 2006 China Nuclear International Uranium Corporation (SinoUranium or SinoU) was set up by CNNC to acquire uranium resources internationally. It is setting up a mine in Niger and is investigating prospects elsewhere.

A wholly owned Hong Kong subsidiary of SinoU is CNNC Overseas Uranium Holding Ltd, which in mid 2008 bought a 75% interest in United Metals Holdings, a listed HK company and changed its name to CNNC International Ltd.  This has agreed to buy prospects in Mongolia. 

Sinosteel is ano ther state-owned entity with equity in an Australian uranium explorer and 60% joint venturer with it in developing a mine, hoping to sell product to the Chinese nuclear industry.

China North Nuclear Fuel Co Ltd is a CNNC subsidiary running a fuel fabrication plant at Baotou in Inner Mongolia. A joint venture centred on it is being formed to progress research on thorium fuel cycle.

China Guangdong Nuclear Uranium Corp (CGNURC) is the CGNPC entity responsible for mining and purchase of uranium resources domestically and imported.  A CGNPC subsidiary, Sino-Kazakhstan Uranium Resources Investment Co, has invested in two Kazakh uranium minesmanaged by Semizbai-U joint venture, following approval from NDRC.

The China Nuclear Engineering and Construction Group (CNEC or CNECC) is a major state entity split off from the rest of CNNC in 1998 and responsible for nuclear plant construction (including that in Pakistan).

CNEC is closely linked with the Beijing Institute of Nuclear Engineering (BINE), a CNNC subsidiary responsible for basic design of reactors. It is based in the Haidian university precinct north of Beijing and has 1800 staff.

Chinergy Co Ltd was set up as a 50-50 joint venture between Tsinghua Holding Co. Ltd and CNEC in 2003 as a general contractor for high temperature reactors.  In 2007 CGNPC contributed capital to give it a 15% share in the JV.

China Nuclear Engineering Co was set up by CNNC in 2006 to rationalise design work for new nuclear plants as well as to help win overseas orders for nuclear plants. It is built on the technology basis of BINE and is also responsible for the construction, equipment procurement, trial testing and operational maintenance of nuclear power plants. Future project design will move from BINE to China Nuclear Engineering, allowing BINE to concentrate on technology planning.

The Nuclear Power Institute of China (NPIC) is based in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, and is part of CNNC.  It was set up in 1958 for nuclear reactor engineering research, design, testing and operation and has 3700 staff.  Its R&D now takes in the Candu design used at Qinshan, and in  particular, aspects of its fuel cycle and since 1997 it has worked on the CNP-1000 design.

The Shanghai Nuclear Energy Research & Design Institute (SNERDI) was part of CNNC and worked with BINE and NPIC in detailed design work for the AP1000 projects. However, SNERDI has been reassigned to SNPTC and is remains dedicated to AP1000 design work, particularly development of the CAP-1400 reactor based on it.  (It also worked closely with AECL on reactor engineering for the Qinshan Candu reactors.)

The Shandong Electric Power Construction Corp. (SEPCO) in Haiyang City, Shandong province also trades as Shandong Nuclear Power Construction Group Corp.   It relates to the Shandong Nuclear Power Equipment Manufacturing Co Ltd  (SNPEMC), set up in 2007 by the SNPTC which holds a 64% share, with China Nuclear Industry Dier San construction company (CNEC? 29.33%) and China Nuclear Industry Group Corporation (CNEIC? 6.67%). SNPEMC designs and manufactures AP1000 reactor components, containment vessels and equipment.  It is responsible for the fabrication of equipment modules, structural modules, primary pipelines and equipment for conventional island, as well as fabrication of equipment for other nuclear power plants.  (For Shandong Nuclear Power Company see next section)

The State Nuclear Power Engineering Company is a subsidiary of SNPTC responsible for AP1000 project management and control, design, architectural work, commissioning, procurement etc. <www.snpec.com.cn>

The State Nuclear Electric Power Planning Design & Research Institute is a subsidiary of SNPTC responsible for designing Shandong Haiyang project conventional island.

The Shenzhen Shandong Nuclear Power Construction Co. Ltd. (SSNP) is a subsidiary of SEPCO, with equity also held by Shandong Luneng Construction Group Co.Ltd.  It appears to have been involved with Daya Bay and Ling Ao.

China First Heavy Industries Corp. (CFHI) is one of China's key industrial enterprises.  It produces pressure vessels and pressurisers for nuclear power plants up to 1080 MWe CPR-1000 (eg Hongyanhe), and components for Qinshan.  It is bidding to supply pressure vessels and steam generators for two AP1000 reactors at Sanmen and Haiyang.

The Shanghai Electric Heavy Industries Group Corporation (SEC) includes heavy engineering and it manufactures pressure vessels, steam generators and pressurizers for PWRs.  It is bidding to supply pressure vessels and steam generators for China's second two AP1000 reactors.  SEC subsidiaries include Shanghai Boiler Works Ltd and Shanghai Electric Nuclear Power Equipment Co Ltd (SENPE) which is increasing ingot capacity to allow fabrication of both AP1000 and EPR components.

Areva has a joint venture with Shanghai Electric involving a power transformer factory in Shanghai and two more to be built in Wuhan, Hubei province, and near Shanghai.  Complementing this Areva is building an ultra high-voltage R&D centre in Shanghai.

China National Erzhong Group Co Ltd (China Erzhong) claims to be the largest heavy machine-building base in China, and with related company China Dongfang Electric Corporation (DEC) is based inland in Sichuan.  DEC specializes in power equipment manufacturing and  had supplied 110 GW of generating equipment over 20 years to the end of 2005.  Alstom and DEC are supplying the turbines and 1750 MWe generators for CGNPC's Taishan EPR plant, continuing a long-standing relationship among the three.  DEC subsidiary Dongfang Turbine Co suffered major damage in the Sichuan earthquake in 2008.

Dongfang (Guangzhou) Heavy Machinery Co's (DFHM) has equity from both DEC and China Erzhong, with Guangdong investors, and has a plant at Nansha near the coast - its workshop is a replica of Areva's Chalon/St. Marcel plant in France.  It is set up to supply CPR-1000 components for CGNPC, and in June 2009 it delivered the first Chinese-made reactor pressure vessel for a 1000 MWe reactor.  Dongfang Electric Corporation Ltd (formerly Dongfang Electric Machinery Co), is listed in Hong Kong and in April 2009 announced a CNY 5 billion capital raising. 

Areva has a joint venture with DEC subsidiary Dongfang Electrical Machinery Company Ltd (DFEM), set up in 2005.  Areva DongFang manufactures primary reactor coolant pumps.  It is supplying pumps to CNPEC for three reactors at each of Ningde and Yangjiang. 

The Donfang Boiler Group Co Ltd manufactures large capacity power plant boilers including components of PWRs and is working with Areva to manufacture all heavy nuclear components for Ling Ao phase 2 and other CGNPC projects.

Harbin Power Equipment Co. Ltd (HPEC) is supplying 1200 MWe steam turbines and generators for the four Sanmen and Haiyang AP1000 units under licence from Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI).  Its subsidiary Harbin Boiler Company Ltd. (formerly Harbin Boiler Works) is the largest utility boiler manufacturer in the country and is also bidding to supply pressure vessels and steam generators for China's second two AP1000 reactors.  Harbin Turbine Company Ltd is another subsidiary of HPEC.

China Nuclear Power Engineering Co. Ltd (CNPEC) was set up by CGNPC in 2004 and plays the leading reactor engineering role in it.  China Nuclear Power Design Co is another CGNPC subsidiary, responsible for feasibility studies and designs.  Both are part of a consortium with Alstom and DEC which is supplying turbines and generators for Taishan nuclear plant, for which Areva is supplying the nuclear part.  Alstom Wuhan Engineering and Technology Co. is supporting the Chinese end of this.

The China Institute of Atomic Energy is responsible for R&D on vitrification of high-level wastes.  The China Institute for Radiation Protection is responsible for R&D on decommissioning.

Planning for major nuclear energy research projects is the responsibility of the Ministry of Science & Technology (MOST).

The China Nuclear Energy Association (CNEA) was set up with State Council agreement in 2007 as a trade association.  It has membership of over 200 enterprises involved in the whole fuel cycle and its infrastructure.

The Chinese Nuclear Society is to focus on nuclear science popularization and education from 2006.

Organisation - power plants 

Daya Bay is owned by Guangdong Nuclear Power Joint Venture Co Ltd, and Lingao by the Ling Ao Nuclear Power Co Ltd.  Both sites are run by Daya Bay Nuclear Power Operations & Management Co Ltd (DNMC) which was formed in 2003 and is 50% owned by each company.

Qinshan is a CNNC enterprise.  Phase 1 is owned by Qinshan Nuclear Power Co, phase 2 (including units 6 & 7) is owned by Qinshan Nuclear Power JV Co Ltd, with a minority stake in being held by CPI.   Qinshan phase 3 is owned by Third Qinshan Nuclear Power Co Ltd - also part of CNNC but with China Electric Power Group Corporation, Zhejiang Provincial Electric Power Corporation, Zhejiang Provincial Electric Power Development Corporation, Shenergy (Group) Co Ltd and Jiangsu International Trust & Investment Corporation as other shareholders.

Jiangsu Nuclear Power Corporation  was established in 1997 to construct and operate Tianwan NPP, with four units planned (phases 1 & 2) and space for four more. CNNC owns 50% share, CPI 30% and Jiangsu Guoxin Group 20%.

Early in 2005, Liaoning Hongyanhe Nuclear Power Company Ltd. (LHNP) was established in Liaoning Province by CPI, and will be responsible for the Hongyanhe nuclear power project 100 km north of Dalian City.  45% is held by CPI, 45% by CGNPC and 10% by Dalian Municipal Construction Investment Corp. CGNPC will be responsible for construction and the first five years operation of the plant.

The Shandong Hongshiding Nuclear Power Co Ltd is developer of a new plant at Hongshiding, in Rushan city and has 51% holding by CNEC/CNNC, with Huadian Power International Co and two investment companies.

The Shandong Nuclear Power Company Ltd (SDNPC) is a subsidiary of CPI and was established at Yantai in July 2004 to undertake the development, construction, operation and management of the Shandong Haiyang nuclear power project, building AP1000 reactors. CPI owns 61 or 65%, CNNC 5%, and four local entities the balance: Shandong International Trust & Investment Corporation, Yantai Electric Power Development Co, China Guodian Group Corporation, and Huaneng Energy & Transportation Industrial (Holding) Co. Ltd.  CHNG is also reported to have some equity in the project.

Ningde Nuclear Power Co Ltd (NDNP) was set up in 2006 by CGNPC and Datang International Power Generation Co.  As of early 2008 CGNPC has 46% of the project, Datang 44% and Fujian Coal Industry Group holds 10% in the joint venture to build the first phase of the 6-unit Ningde nuclear plant at Qinyu, Ningde city in Fujian province.

The Fujian Fuqing Nuclear Co Ltd was set up in May 2006 by CNNC (51%) as a joint venture company with China Huadian Corp (49%) to build the Fuqing plant in Fuqing city in in Fujian province. The first two units of six 1000 MWe reactors are estimated to cost US$ 2.8 billion.

Hubei Nuclear Power Co Ltd was set up by CGNPC and Hubei Energy Group in June 2008 to build a large plant in Xishui county, Xianning city, Hubei province.

Fangchengang: China Guangdong Nuclear Power Holding Company (CGNPC, 40%), CPI (40%) and Guangxi Investment Group Co Ltd (20%) signed a framework agreement in July 2006 to invest US$ 3.1 billion in the first two units of the 6000 MWe plant at Bailong in Guangxi autonomous region of southern China.  CGNPC is in charge.

CNNC owns 51% of the Sanmen Nuclear Power Company, which was set up in April 2005 to build and own the Sanmen project. Other shareholders are the provincial government's Zhejiang Energy Company (Group) Ltd., China Electricity Investment Nuclear Power Company, China Huadian Company Ltd. and CNEC.

Yangjiang Nuclear Power Co Ltd (YJNPC) was set up in 2005 under CGNPC and is in charge of construction and operation of Yangjiang nuclear power station.

Guangdong Taishan Nuclear Power Jojnt Venture Company is set up as a CGNPC subsidiary with 30% held by Electricite de France (EdF) to build, own and operate the Taishan nuclear plant.

Anhui Wuhu Nuclear Power Co was set up following agreement in May 2007 by CGNPC (51%), Shenergy Co. of Shanghai (20%), Shanghai Electric Power Co (14%) and Anhui Province Energy Group Co (15%) to build the $2.9 billion first phase (2 x 1000 MWe) of the Wuhu plant to commence operation in 2015.  The first four CPR-1000 units are expected to cost $7.32 billion.

Taohuajiang Nuclear Power Company Ltd was set up by CNNC in June 2006 to build the Taohuajiang nuclear power plant near Yueyang in inland Hunan province. This is understood to be a CPI project however.

The Hainan Nuclear Power Company Ltd was set up by CNNC (51%) and China Huaneng Group (CHNG) as a joint venture to build the Changjiang nuclear power plant on Hainan Island, with two 650 MWe reactors.  CHNG will take the lead in a second phase of the plant.

Hunan Nuclear Power Company Ltd was set up about 2006 by CPI (45%) with the Hunan government to build the 4000 MWe Xiaomoshan nuclear power plant on the Yangtze River in Yueyang city.

The Shidaowan /Rongcheng 210 MWe HTR-PM demonstration plant is being built by Huaneng Shandong Shidaowan Nuclear Power Co. (HSSNPC).  China Huaneng Group (CHNG) is the lead organization in the joint venture with 47.5% share. China Nuclear Engineering & Construction Group will have a 32.5% stake and Tsinghua University INET 20%.

The 4000 MWe Shidaowan / Rongcheng plant with AP1000 reactors is to be a joint venture of the Huaneng Nuclear Power Development Company and CGNPC but further partners may become involved as State Council approval is sought.

In February 2007 CNNC together with China Three Gorges Project Corporation, China Resources Co Ltd and Hunan Xiangtou Holdings Group Co Ltd set up the joint venture Hunan Taohua River Nuclear Power Co Ltd to build and operate a 4 x 1000 MWe nuclear power plant at Lishanhe in Yiyang City in Hunan province in two stages at a total cost of $5 billion. This is about 100 km SW of Yueyang. The project was approved by the State Development & Reform Commission in November 2005.

Non-proliferation 

China is a nuclear weapons state, party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) under which a safeguards agreement has been in force since 1989, with the Additional Protocol in force since 2002. China undertook nuclear weapons tests 1964-96. Since then it has signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. In May 2004 it joined the Nuclear Suppliers' Group (NSG).

The NSG membership gives rise to questions about China's supply of two small power reactors to Pakistan, Chasma-3 & 4.  Contracts for Chasma units 1 & 2 were signed in 1990 and 2000, before China joined the NSG, which maintains an embargo on sales of nuclear equipment to Pakistan.  The agreement for units 3 & 4 was announced in 2007, and signed in October 2008.

China has Peaceful Use agreements for nuclear materials with Canada, USA, Germany and France. The Canadian one is very similar to Australian bilateral safeguards agreements.

All imported nuclear power plants - from France, Canada and Russia - are under IAEA safeguards*, as is the Russian Hanzhun centrifuge enrichment plant in Shaanxi.

A significant number of military production reactors and other plants, with the related Chinese Academy of Engineering Physics, are in Sichuan province. 

* though only one is listed in IEAE 2005 Annual Report: Qinshan. 

Sources:
Country Nuclear Power Profiles, IAEA, 2003.
Nuclear power development in the Asia Pacific region, ANSTO, June 2001.
The Future of the Nuclear Industry in China, CNS Bulletin, August 2000, p8-11.
Uranium 1999: Resources, Production and Demand, OECD/NEA, 2000.
Nucleonics Week - various, Power in Asia (feature) 27/11/03.
Nuclear Europe Worldscan, March-April 2000.
Zhang Z. & Yu S. 2002, Future HTGR Developments in China after HTR-10, Nuclear Engineering & Design 218, 249-257.
US EIA China brief July 2004.
Qiu J 2006, Status and plans for nuclear power in China, World Nuclear Fuel Cycle conf April 2006.
CNNC & CGNPC web sites

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